Missiles over Hindustan

The international community has always marvelled at the energy with which Indian scientists, software and hardware experts in weapons systems have been moving on, overtaking and sometimes even surpassing achievements of the leading world powers. This is well illustrated by the indigenously developed nuclear weapons and rather modern rocket industry. The majority of missile-related projects for the Ministry of Defence of India are run under the so called Integrated Guided Missile Development Program focused on the development and series production of several missile weapon types including various-range ballistic missiles.

Integrated Guided Missile Development Program

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) is believed to have commenced officially in 1983. The then military and political leadership of India set as its main objective the development of the national rocket industry to a level where the principle of self-reliance would be realisable. Moreover, experience to be gained during implementation of that programme could be utilised when developing other types of missile weapon systems.

At the present time the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program encompasses five projects: - strategic missile systems armed with the Agni-family intermediate-range ballistic missiles and their modifications; - tactical/theatre missile systems armed with the Prithvi-family short-range ballistic missiles and their modifications; - air defence missile systems armed with the Akash and Trishul surface-to-air guided missiles; - antitank guided weapon system armed with the Nag guided missile. Sometimes the BrahMos missile system is also included into this Program, which is incorrect since its development has been started much later within the framework of a joint Indo-Russian programme executed by the BrahMos Aerospace Limited co-founded by the Russian Military Industrial Corporation "NPO Mashinostroyenia" based near Moscow and Indian Ministry of Defence's DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation). The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program has been lately complemented with the Astra air-to-air guided missile development project as well.

Fig. Indian carrier rockets

It should be noted here that Delhi was virtually forced into the realisation of the above Program by the then policy of a number of Western countries attempting to restrict weapons upgrading by armies in most advanced so-called "third-world" countries by introducing the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). In addition, after testing its nuclear charge on 18 May 1974 India was submitted to a number of sanctions which further hampered the development of combat missile systems.

The IGMDP main provisions were prepared by Dr. Abdul Kalam, the then head of the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) in Hyderabad, later elected President of India, commonly named ever since "the father of India's missile programme. It took six months for Dr. Abdul Kalam and his DRDL colleagues to sort out all those issues with the assistance of the scientific advisor to the Minister of Defence and DRDO head Dr. V.S. Arunchalam. On completing their work they reported its results to the Minister of Defence and Prime Minister of India.

It is interesting enough that in the beginning there was no mentioning of a single programme: development of missile systems armed with the Nag antitank guided missile, Akash and Trishul surface-to-air missiles as well as Prithvi and Agni ballistic missiles was planned as a row of unrelated projects implemented consecutively one after another. However, Minister of Defence R. Venkataraman insisted that Dr. Kalam and Dr. Arunchalam combined all those projects into the unique Integrated Program. The Program officially started on 27 July 1983.

A special board headed by Dr. Abdul Kalam was set up to manage practical implementation of the Integrated Program. Dr. Kalam also delegated sufficient authority to five project directors for executive and financial activities, leaving to himself only the most important issues such as contacts with more than two dozens of subcontractors. Dr. Kalam's popularity grew with the emergence of new missiles, which finally culminated in his victory at the elections of the President of India.

This article treats only those missile systems that are based on the various-purpose Agni/Prithvi-family ballistic missiles.

Prithvi missile system

The Prithvi (Sanskrit for "Earth") missile is a single-stage short-range ground-to-ground ballistic missile. Indian missile experts derived their designs from the second-stage engine of the surface-to-air missile for the Soviet S-75 Dvina air defence missile system, as well as rocket engines designed earlier by India under the Devil and Valiant projects (the Devil project was intended to develop an indigenous liquid-propellant rocket engine drawing on the analysis of similar Soviet guided missiles, whereas the Valiant project was dedicated to the development of a multi-stage strategic ballistic missile). At the present time there are two variants of the Prithvi missile: one with a shorter-range but heavier payload, and the other with a greater-range but lower-weight warhead. In all other respects the two variants are virtually identical. The modifications are designated "Prithvi-I" and "Prithvi-II" correspondingly.

Fig. Prithvi-II ballistic missile mobile launcher

The Prithvi ballistic missile is a single-stage liquid-propellant monoblock with a single warhead and an inertial navigation and terminal guidance system. Structurally the missile has a cylindrical body with a cone-shaped head, a cruciform wing in the middle part and four smaller control/correction surfaces in the tail end of the missile. The missile body is made of aluminium alloys, and is covered with radio-absorbing materials. The missile propulsion unit is composed of two liquid-propellant engines, and its fuel tank is made of aluminium alloys as well. The engine uses a mixture of the inhibited red fuming nitric acid as an oxidiser, and a compound fuel made of xylidene (50%) and triethylamine (50%). Nnormally Tthe missile is fuelled immediately before the launch, since fuelled missile can be stored for a few months only. Thanks to the large-area wing, the Prithvi missile is capable of performing manoeuvres at the terminal flight leg to correct its trajectory and penetrate enemy antiballistic missile defence.

Basic specifications of the Prithvi-family missiles are as follows: missile length - 8.55 m (Prithvi-I) or 9.0 (Prithvi-II), wing span - 2.6 m, launch weight - about 4,000 kg, minimum launch range - 40 km, maximum launch range - 150 km (Prithvi-I with a 1,000-kg warhead) and 250 km (Prithvi-II). Some Indian media have reported that the Prithvi-I missile carrying a 250-kg warhead might be launched at a range as great as 500 km - yet it seems hardly probable.

The missile's circular error probability (CEP) does not exceed 0.1% of the launch range, that is the CEP at the maximum range would make 250 m (even though some Indian sources suggest that the CEP could be as little as 0.01% of the launch range, in our opinion it does not seem realistic). The missile is equipped with an inertial guidance system. The Prithvi developers declare that during the pre-flight preparation up to six waypoints at the terminal trajectory leg can be uploaded into the onboard mission computer. It is believed that this procedure must increase probability of penetration by the missile of enemy antiballistic missile defence, which is further improved by applying a special radio-absorbing coating on the missile body surface (the missile's capability for en route manoeuvring is equally dubious). It is further affirmed that the onboard guidance system can correct the missile flight trajectory within 15 degrees. The latest missile modifications are also equipped with satellite navigation system receivers: some experts believe this to be the reason why India has agreed on a broader cooperation with Russia within the GLONASS programme. The missile onboard computer is based on a dual-processor principle.

The missile warhead weighs 1,000 kg (Prithvi-I) or 500 kg (Prithvi-II). It can be either conventional explosive or tactical nuclear Plutonium-based charge with a 12-15-kilotonne equivalent. The Prithvi ballistic missile can be armed with different types of conventional warheads including a high explosive fragmentation warhead with preformed striking elements (it provides kill radius of 250 m against soft-skinned targets, such as positions of missile launchers and radars, as well as concentrations of manpower or war materiel), an incendiary warhead (with kill radius of up to 500 m), a cluster warhead loaded with bomblets or mines, a fuel-air explosive (volumetric) warhead, and a runway/airfield facilities buster warhead (this warhead can damage a runway made of the LNC60 grade concrete on an area of up to 40-60-sq.m.). After completion of the nuclear tests in May 1998 Dr. Kalam, then DRDO head and scientific advisor to the Minister of Defence, made public the feasibility of arming the missile with a nuclear charge. It is thought that since 1997 up to 20 nuclear charges for the Prithvi-I ballistic missile have been produced, and starting from 1999 up to 10 nuclear charges for the Prithvi-II ballistic missile.

The missile launcher is mounted on the Tatra ‘Kolos' 4x4 all-terrain truck. Immediately prior to launch the launcher with the loaded missile is separated from the truck and is stabilised on the launch pad. The Kolos transporter-launcher vehicle has the following specifications: empty weight - 13,800 kg, length - 8.8m, width - 2.5 m, height (at cabin) - 2.69 m, road clearance - 425 mm, engine - 250-hp 12-cylinder Tatra T-930-3 diesel, maximum speed - 80 km/h, fuel tank capacity - 520 l, negotiated obstacles - vertical wall up to 0.6 m high, water crossing up to 1.4 m deep, slope - up to 30°, cabin - equipped with the NBC protection system.

The Prithvi ballistic missile development project was the first one to start in 1983 under the Integrated Program umbrella. The Prithvi-I ground trials began in 1987 and the first test flight took place at Sriharikota on 25 February 1988. The Prithvi-II missile was first launched at the Interim Test Range in Balasore on 27 January 1996. The Prithvi ballistic missile was the first guided missile successfully developed and produced in series by India's own effort. As a matter of fact, liquid-fuel modifications of the missile have a typical drawback: they must be loaded with fuel immediately prior to launch. This routine can pose certain problems in field conditions, and seriously degrades the system's combat potential. The Prithvi ballistic missile system was demonstrated for the first time at the military parade in commemoration of the Republic Day of India on 26 January 1994

It was initially planned that the Prithvi-I ballistic missile system would enter service with the Indian Army by 1990. However, owing to delays in the missile development and a number of test launch failures it was only in the middle of 1994 that the series production started, and the missile system was then inducted for trial operation. Seven test launches had been made by that time, and in 1994 a few more missiles were test fired by Indian Army combat crews (that June the Prithvi ballistic missile was launched from Chandipur missile range against the firing ground on Wheeler Island at a range of some 80 km). After a number of successful test launches the developer/manufacturer was awarded the Indian Army's contract for the delivery of six missile systems with the follow-up for 75 more missiles. The first-batch 20 missiles were delivered to the customer by October 1995 and were used to arm the 333^rd Missile Group permanently established in the city of Secunderabad.

The Indian Armed Forces commissioned in due time two modifications of the Prithvi missile: Prithvi-I (SS-150) for the Indian Army, and Prithvi-II (SS-250) for the Indian Air Force (25 missiles) and later for the Indian Army. It is most probable that the "airborne" modification of the Prithvi missile was first publicly demonstrated at the military parade on the occasion of India's Republic Day on 26 January 1995, but its inception into service by the Indian Air Force was officially announced only on 18 April 2001 by the then Minister of Defence Jaswant Singh in his speech to the Parliament. He stated then that it was only a trial operation and further acquisition of this ballistic missile for the Air Force was not planned. At present a subsidiary enterprise of the Bharat Dynamics Limited company in Hyderabad is producing only the Prithvi-II missiles.

Fig. Dhanush sea-launched ballistic missile

There were also reports that the Prithvi-II ballistic missile underwent upgrading in the second half of the 1990s. As a result, new high-energy fuel for the missile allowed its developers to increase the warhead weight from 500 kg to 1,000 kg while retaining the given flight range. Some Indian media report that the upgraded version of the missile is powered by a solid-propellant engine. The first test launch of this modification took place on 31 March 2001, and the missile flight range then was 250 km. However, there is every likelihood that it concerns an entirely new ballistic missile, designated as "Prithvi-III" (see below), rather than the Prithvi-II modification.

In 2001 a series of tests were conducted to evaluate combat effectiveness of a multipurpose combat module armed with a row of various-type warheads: incendiary, cluster with bomblets, and runway buster warhead. In the early 2001 the Prithvi ballistic missile systems were incepted into active service and put on combat duty. The decision about it was based on the analysis of the Indian armed forces' potential during the confrontation with Pakistan in 2001.

Fig. Dhanush ballistic missile in the assembly shop

According to unclassified publications the Indian Army has by now formed as a minimum three missile groups numbered 333, 444, and 555. Terminology-wise, an Indian Army's missile group corresponds to a Russian missile brigade: that is, one Prithvi missile group includes three missile battalions with 12 missile launchers in each, and three supplementary transporter-launcher units in the reserve of the missile group commander. Thus it turns out that the total number of the Prithvi missile system transporter-launcher vehicles of various modifications in the Indian Army can amount to 45 units. Analysts assume though that their quantity is much less in reality. The third missile group to be formed in 2003, as was then announced, actually existed only on paper for some years. Indian sources still insist that the national defence industry is capable, in case of necessity, of producing three to four such missiles per month.

It is worth mentioning that after successful completion of the Agni intermediate-range ballistic missile test Mr K. Shantanam, the DRDO technical and scientific advisor, made a statement that the Prithvi ballistic missile had never been planned to be the principal nuclear capable delivery vehicle: such role was considered for it only in contingency cases. The Indian nuclear scientist said in particular: "Now we can state that the Agni solid-fuel missile has completely assumed the role of delivering the nuclear charge, taking it off from the Prithvi liquid-fuel missile".

Fig. A mockup of the Sukanya class patrol ship with the Dhanush ballistic missile

Developer of the Prithvi missile system - Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India.

Prime contractor - Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) company, Hyderabad.

Subcontractors for the Program:

-Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) company, Bangalore - liquid-fuel engine and missile body components;

- Bharat Aluminum (Balco) company - components made of aluminium alloys, and missile body components;

- Bharat Earth Movers Ltd (BEML) company - transporter-launchers and other vehicles based on the Kolos truck;

- Khirkee Explosives and Combustibles Plant, Pune - liquid fuel components.

An estimated cost of one serially-produced missile is about 0.74 - 1.4 mln USD.

Fig. Dhanush ballistic missile

Dhanush sea-launched ballistic missile system

The Dhanush (Sanskrit for "Bow") sea-launched ballistic missile has been designed within the framework of the Prithvi ballistic missile development programme. Indian specialists describe colourfully the system composition: ‘Dhanush' is the launching unit equipped with the hydraulic stabilisation system, which is a ‘bow', whereas the missile is an ‘arrow' shot by means of the above mentioned bow. Indian sources sometimes designate the Dhanush otherwise, as Prithvi-III (SS-350).

The Dhanush missile is structurally similar to its prototype, the Prithvi-II single-stage ballistic missile. Two variants of the missile are said to have been developed: an anti-ship missile with the launch range of around 250 km, and a ship-to-surface missile with the launch range of around 500 km. Indian missile experts are also said to be developing a submarine-launched version of the Dhanush ballistic missile - if so, this one should be powered by a solid-propellant engine.

The Dhanush ballistic missile specifications are as follows: missle launch weight - 4,400 kg, warhead type and weight - conventional high explosive, 500 kg (there are reports that the warhead weight can be increased up to 1,000 kg), missile length - 8.56 m. misile body diameter - 1.1 m, number of stages - one, flight range - 250 - 350 km, CEP - about 250 m, guidance system type - inertial. The ship-based management system allows launching the missile at a pitch angle of up to 5 degrees and roll angle of up to 10 degrees. The missile pointing accuracy is within one degree. The maximum range flight duration is 300 seconds. The missile launch system is said to be able to also manage the Sagarika tactical missile. This eventuality makes some experts speculate that the Sagarika and Dhanush missiles are nothing other than different modifications of the same prototype derived from the Prithvi ballistic missile.

Fig. Sagarika sea-launched missile test

The Sukanya class ‘Subhadra' patrol ship (INS Subhadra, P51) was employed as a carrier ship for the missile tests and trial operation. The first missile flight test was conducted onboard this ship, and ended up as a failure when the ballistic missile prototype broke in two in the air, fell down and sank at the 4^th second of the flight. The second test launch was performed in December 2000 and the third one - on 21 September 2001. The latter one was considered a complete success as the missile carrying a 500-kg payload was launched from the ship off the coast of Orissa state, covered the pre-planned distance (150 km), and splashed down in the defined water area of the Bay of Bengal. A representative of the Indian Ministry of Defence even declared in the interview for "The Hindustan Times" newspaper that India's military and political leaders would soon begin "to practically employ the system". But in the same year an official representative of the Indian Navy who preferred to remain unnamed pointed out that "Indian Navy no longer considers the Dhanush ballistic missile as a platform for nuclear charge delivery". Finally, in September 2002 Dr. Abdul Kalam, the then scientific advisor to the Minister of Defence, announced that the Dhanush ballistic missile was prepared to enter service with the Indian Navy.

The missile was planned to be inducted by the Indian Navy for trial operation not later that 2003, yet no credible information about this issue has been released so far. Even though after the fourth successful test onboard the Subdhara patrol ship some Indian media reported that the Ministry of Defence had allegedly placed an order for 30 missiles at the manufacturing plant. The serial production missile was tested during the fifth trial launch conducted in the Bay of Bengal on 28 December 2005.

The sea-launched ballistic missile development is apparently going to be stay on hold, at least for some time in the near future, since the tension in relations between India and Pakistan has somewhat eased down, whereas this shipborne missile system had been made as a deterrent for Pakistan: it was planned that Indian surface ships armed with such systems would sail to safe positions off main ports and naval stations of Pakistan and deliver massive missile strikes against them (some experts even consider the Dhanush missile to be nothing else than technology demonstrator). A model of such carrier ship with the Dhanush ballistic missile launcher onboard was shown at the Defexpo 2002 International defence exhibition (it is now showcased at the Indian Minister of Defence representation area on the territory of the Pragati Maidan exhibition centre in Delhi).

Developer - Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India

Prime contractor - Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL) company, Hyderabad.

Subcontractor for the programme - Hindustan Aeronautics LTD (HAL) company, Bangalore - engine and missile body components;

Sagarika (Shaurya) tactical/theatre missile system

The Sagarika (Sanskrit for "Oceanic") sea-launched missile system and its land-based version "Shaurya" (Sanskrit for "Valour") are a follow-on development of the Prithvi ballistic missile incorporating new technologies drawn by Indian experts from the joint Russian-Indian BrahMos project. The new missile has been developed since 1991. It is a two-stage missile in which both stages are powered by solid-propellant motors. In contrast to the preceding models of the Prithvi family ballistic missiles, the Sagarika and Shaurya tactical/theatre missiles do not have an X-form wing in the mid-portion of the missile body, and their specifications are much closer to those of the BrahMos missile than the Prithvi ballistic missile. The missile flight tests started in 2004: two successful launches were performed on 23 January and 19 March 2004.

Fig. Shaurya tactical/theatre ballsistic missile

The missile bode is made of a steel alloy. The Sagarika missile specifications are as follows: length - 10.0 m, maximum body diameter - 0.74 m, launch weight - about 6,200 kg, maximum CEP - not more than 25 m. With the new engine and high-energy fuel the Sagarika missile can be fired at a range of 350 to 600 km, and deliver a payload weighing from 500 kg to 1,000 kg. A number of Indian sources have intimated that the missile developer is taking measures to increase the missile launch range up to 1,300 to 2,500 km and has requested technical assistance of Russia and Israel. The Sagarika/Shaurya missile system powered by solid-propellant engines has a substantially greater combat potential since there is no need any more to keep a crowd of technical support vehicles within the missile battalions as was the case with the Prithvi-I and Prithvi-II liquid-propellant missiles. The missile is stored in a 2.4-m diameter composite transport-launch canister.

It is also most interesting that besides ground-to-ground modification of the Sagarika missile, Indian specialists are developing its submarine-launched version (designated in some Indian media as Project K-15) for arming an indigenously developed advanced nuclear-powered submarine. The missile is planned to carry a warhead weighing from 180 kg to 550 kg with either conventional or nuclear (17-150 kT yield) charge.

Fig. A hypothetical view of the Sagirika missile outside its transport-launch canister.

Information about the Sagarika missile system programme is rather contradictory, but some media had reports that the Sagarika ballistic missile was launched from a special underwater test facility at Chandipur test range on 27 October 2004, and on 12 November 2008 sixth test launch of this kind was made, but there are no more data about further testing since then. The missile silos onboard the advanced submarine are supposed to accommodate both one Agni III ballistic missile special modification (one Agni IIISL per silo) and Sagarika missiles (three missiles per silo). The Sagarika missiles can be launched from submerged position at the depth of 50 m (precise launch depth range is unknown).

Agni family strategic ballistic missile system

First attempts to develop an indigenous long-range strategic missile were undertaken in the early 1970s. Thus, Project Valiant was started in 1972 with the purpose to design and manufacture a three-stage liquid-propellant intercontinental ballistic missile. The first booster stage was supposed to accommodate three liquid-propellant rocket engines with a 30-tonne thrust each, and the second stage should have had one such engine. At the same time civil-purpose rocket specialists from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) were developing a family of space launch vehicles: in 1980 they made first successful launch of a four-stage space launch vehicle SLV-3.

Fig. Launch of the Agni I medium-range ballistic missile.

By expert estimates at least 10 nuclear charges for these missiles have been produced until now.

The technical heritage accumulated in Project Valiant (cancelled for some reason in 1974) as well as in the Space Launch Vehicle project laid perfect ground for design works over the Agni (Sanskrit for "Fire") family ballistic missiles, officially started in 1983, although individual case studies had been going on since 1979.

The first member in this ballistic missile family was the Agni-TD/TTB missile (where TD means "Technology Demonstrator", and TTB - "Technology Test Bed"). Generally speaking, the missile was used as a technology demonstrator and test prototype helping to elaborate a number of tasks and components, including, first of all, the following ones:

- missile design optimisation, determination of stages number and composition;

- study of missile control methods in various flight trajectory phases, especially during reentry of its warhead (reentry vehicle) into dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere at hypersonic speeds;

- possibility to introduce into the reentry vehicle structure a multi-directionally reinforced carbon-fiber preform technology (MRCP) material, as well as

- testing of a new inertial navigation system.

Fig. A mockup of the Agni ballistic missile railway-based launcher

Indian developers of the new missile confessed that the first Agni family offspring was kind of a hybrid of the Prithvi ballistic missile with the S-1 booster stage of the SLV-3 launch vehicle. The booster was a little modified and employed solid propellant. To reduce design time, a shortened version of the Prithvi missile's liquid-propellant engine was used in the second stage of the new missile instead of a solid-propellant engine (yet to be designed).

The first successful test of the new missile took place on 22 May 1989 at Chandipur test range. For the second test the missile's second stage was slightly modified to take greater fuel load. The last Agni-TD/TTB ballistic missile was test launched on 19 February 1994. According to Indian sources, during that flight an upgraded reentry vehicle capable of performing self-correction and terminal evasive manoeuvres (after entering into dense layers of the Earth's atmosphere) was tested for the first time. The maximum missile flight range registered during tests was 1,450 km (maximum possible range was announced to be 1,500 km).

Fig. Agni II ballistic missile mobile launcher at the military parade in Delhi

The Agni-TD/TTB missile never entered service with the Indian armed forces, although in 1999 during Kargil armed conflict at least one such missile was prepared together with four Prithvi missiles for combat employment in the nuclear capable configuration in case if Pakistan had begun a large-scale aggression against India or had first employed nuclear weapons. In his book "Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India's Quest To Be a Nuclear Power" published in India in 2000 Raj Chengappa writes that the above mentioned five missiles were brought into Combat Readiness No. 3 status which stipulates that nuclear warheads should be completely prepared for employment and ready for installation on the carrier missiles. All the missiles were moved and deployed near India's western regions in close vicinity to the Indo-Pakistan border. Some Indian high-ranking officials and retired generals have even avowed that the nuclear charge was indeed mounted on the Agni missile, and the missile itself was brought to the launch position, fully loaded with fuel, and ready for immediate launch.

Fig. Agni IIITD intercontinental ballistic missile prototype

As of today, the Agni ballistic missile family has four fully completed missile modifications with two more under development:

- Agni-TD/TTB - a medium-range two-stage technology demonstrator missile (its first stage is a solid propellant booster, and the second stage - a liquid-propellant motor). The missile has successfully passed tests, and its production is terminated;

- Agni I (or A-1) - a single-stage solid-propellant medium-range ballistic missile having the launch range of 850 km with a 1,000-kg warhead. The missile is in service with the Indian Army, its production is continued;

- Agni II (or A-2) - a two-stage solid-propellant medium/intermediate-range ballistic missile having the launch range of 2,800 - 3,000 km with a 1,000-kg warhead. The missile is in service with the Indian Army, its production is continued;

- Agni IIAT (or A-2AT) - an upgraded version of the Agni II ballistic missile having the launch range increased up to 4,000 km with a 1,500-kg warhead. The missile is made of the state-of-the-art more durable and light materials. The missile is under development;

- Agni III - a three-stage solid-propellant intercontinental ballistic missile having the launch range of not less than 5,500 km with a 1,500-kg warhead, or 12,000 km for a 500-kg warhead;

- Agni IV (or Agni III++) - a three-stage solid-propellant intercontinental ballistic missile having the launch range of more than 10,000 km with a 1,000-kg warhead. The missile is under development.

Fig. Developers of the Agni III ICBM at their product

Indian media sources report that the Agni family missiles will be further upgraded by equipping them with satellite navigation system receivers of either Russian-made GLONASS (GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), for which Russia and India have reached a fundamental agreement to operate it jointly, or Indian-made IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) which should cover up to 35% of the Globe according to its Indian developers.

Agni I medium-range ballistic missile

The Agni I is a single-stage solid-propellant medium-range ballistic missile fitted with a separable warhead and an inertial navigation system.

Fig. Agni IIITD intercontinental ballistic missile

The development works over the Agni I missile project were started in 1994 immediately after successful tests of the Agni-TD/TTB ballistic missiles. However, after some time they were suspended and resumed after successfully tests of the Agni II ballistic missile. It was revived on the initiative of the Indian Armed Forces who demanded urgent induction into service of a ballistic missile with greater flight range than that of the Prithvi missile but less than the Agni II's. The range should be within 300 - 2,000 km. As a result of the design studies it was decided to re-engineer the Agni II medium-range ballistic missile instead of developing a new one. Actually one stage was cut off from the missile, and the new missile became thus single-stage.

The Agni I missile specifications are as follows: length - about 15 m, maximum missile body diametre - 1.0 m, launching weight - about 12 tonnes, reentry vehicle weight with the nuclear charge - up to 1,000 kg. Its reentry vehicle is identical to that mounted on the Agni II medium-range ballistic missile. The Agni I missile with the standard-weight reentry vehicle (1,000 kg) has launch range of about 850 km. According to its developers, if fitted with a lower-weight reentry vehicle (e.g. 500 kg) the missile can have its flight range increased up to 1,200 km. The missile has the same booster and electronics as those installed in the Agni II ICBM.

Fig. Agni IIITD ICBM test launch

The first test flight of the ballistic missile topped with a 1,000-kg reentry vehicle took place on 25 January 2002. The missile was launched from a mobile wheeled launcher (so called road-mobile launch). The missile flew at a range of about 700 km. On 9 January 2003 the second missile was test launched at a range of 700 km. The Agni I missile launcher can be mounted on a railway carriage base.

The Agni I medium-range ballistic missile has sufficient flight range and combat power. Therefore the missile can engage any vital installations on the territory of Pakistan without having to deploy its launchers in close vicinity to the border. Besides, the missile can engage targets on the territory of Afghanistan, Iran, and China as well.

By expert estimates, up to ten 200-kT nuclear warheads for the Agni I medium-range ballistic missile have been produced and delivered to the Indian armed forces in the period since 1998 until now. Indian sources report that the Agni I ballistic missiles are in service with 334^th and 444^th Missile Groups of the Indian Army.

The missile cost amounts to 3.5 mln USD.

Agni II medium-range ballistic missile

The Agni II is a two-stage solid-propellant medium-range (in Western terminology -intermediate-range) ballistic missile fitted with one separable warhead of about 200-kilotonne yield and an inertial navigation system based on Indian-designed/Indian-produced laser gyroscopes. The missile development started in 1979 and was included into the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program in 1983.

The Agni II specifications are as follows: missile length - 19.6 m, maximum body diameter - 1.0 m, missile launch weight - about 16 tonnes, reentry vehicle weight with the nuclear charge - up to 1,000 kg, launch range - not less than 2,000 km. The onboard missile equipment is integrated via MIL-STD-1553B standard data bus. The developers succeeded in reducing length of cables and wires by 8 times compared with a 24-km long wiring on the Agni-TD/TTB ballistic missile. The Mk.2 reentry vehicle houses one 200-300 kT warhead (from the total weight of 1,000 kg, the warhead and antiballistic missile defence penetration means account for 750 kg, and the rest goes to the reentry vehicle structure). The missile CEP is 100-200 m, but as some media have reported, the developers have been able to reduce it to 40 m by introducing new equipment (e.g. satellite navigation system receivers). Besides, the reentry vehicle of the missile can be powered by a high altitude-correction liquid-propellant motor. To avoid overheating, the reentry vehicle enters the atmosphere at a high incidence angle.

The A210 type powerplant makes use of solid-propellant engines in the first and second stages. The first stage booster engine is practically identical to that used in the Agni-TD/TTB missile which, in its turn, was derived from the SLV-3 launch vehicle engine. The booster uses more advanced fuel with improved characteristics. Both stages are made of the 15CDV6 grade high-strength steel. The missile launch preparation now takes only 15 minutes thanks to the employment of the solid-propellant engines which allow for drastic reduction of the pre-flight procedures.

The new missile was first test launched on 11 April 1999 at 09:47 Indian Standard Time from the IC-4 launch pad of then new test range situated in the inner part of Wheeler Island off the coast of Orissa State at the range of 150 km from its capital, the city of Bhubaneshwar. The ballistic missile was launched from a mobile launching unit made from a modified railway carriage resembling structurally a railway carriage/launcher in the Russian railway-mobile Molodets ICBM system. The combat crew was accommodated in the adjacent re-equipped railway carriage.

The missile was reported to be equipped with a GPS receiver. The missile with a 700-kg warhead flew at a range of 2,100 km for 11 minutes and splashed down in a given water area of the Bay of Bengal. The missile development team confirmed that test characteristics and CEP attained were close to design estimates. They also validated estimated maximum flight range of up to 2,800 - 3,000 km for a "special configuration".

It must be noted that on 14 April Pakistan responded with another testing of its Ghauri-2 medium-range ballistic missile. It was launched from Tilla-Jogian test range, 40 km from Jhelum city, Punjab, to South-East of Islamabad, almost at the very border with India. The missile flew for 11 minutes at a range of 1,400 km and fell down in a defined area of the test range near Jiwani city on the coast of Beluchistan state. Pakistani specialists affirm that this nuclear-capable missile has maximum launch range of not less than 2,300 km.

The Agni II missile production started in small batches after its second test had been successfully completed on 17 January 2001 at Chandipur test range, Orissa (lift-off at 10:01 Indian Standard Time) The launch was performed from a mobile launching unit mounted on the wheeled chassis (tractor-trailer). The range was always about 2,100 km. The main test task was to verify the ballistic missile accuracy at long range. Upon completion of the test Professor P. N. Aggarwal, head of the Agni programme, said that the results of the flight tests confirmed that the objectives set before his team were fully achieved".

India's Minister of Defence George Fernandes in his letter of 7 March 2001 to Members of Parliament announced that the Indian Government took decision to start series production of the Agni II ballistic missile. According to Indian sources, Bharat Dynamics Limited can produce up to 12-18 missiles per month. Speaking to the Parliament on 15 May 2002 George Fernandes intimated that the Government took the fundamental decision to form the second Agni ballistic missile group.

In 2003 India's National Security Committee endorsed the request of the Indian Armed Forces to form two additional missile groups: 334^th Agni I Missile Group and 335^th Agni II Missile Group. On 29 August 2004 the Agni II medium-range ballistic missile was again successfully test launched (third time in succession) from the test range on Wheeler Island. The launch was attended by the Indian Minister of Defence Pranab Mukherjee.

Experts estimate that in the period since 2000 until now up to ten 200-kT nuclear charges for the Agni II medium-range ballistic missile have been produced and delivered to the Indian armed forces.

The missile cost amounts to 4.7 mln USD.

Agni III intercontinental ballistic missile

The Agni III is the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) developed and produced by the Indian defence industrial complex. It is a two-stage missile powered by solid-propellant engines.

Fig. GSLV Mk III launch vehicle

The Agni III ICBM specifications are as follows: missile length - 14.1 m, maximum diameter - 2.0 m, missile launch weight - more than 43 tonnes, reentry vehicle weight with the warhead and antiballistic missile defence penetration means - from 500 to 1,500 kg, reentry vehicle type - monoblock Mk3 of 200 to 300 kT yield, maximum missile launch range - 5,500 km (with the 1,500-kg reentry vehicle mass) or 12,000 km (with the 500-kg reentry vehicle mass). Some media have published reports that the Agni III ICBM can be employed in the conventional, non-nuclear configuration with a 2,490-3,490-kg high explosive warhead. In this case the missile launch weight can be increased up to 48 tonnes. The missile reentry vehicle is provided with a fairing to protect the warhead from overheating when it passes through dense layers of the atmosphere. The fairing is entirely made of composites capable of withstanding high temperatures of up to 5,000 degrees Centigrade.

On 7 February 2001, when visiting the AeroIndia 2001 International Air Show, Dr. B. K. Athre, chief of the DRDO and scientific advisor to the Minister of Defence, said that the Agni III missile was planned for induction into operational service, and it would have greater flight range and improved combat effectiveness. However, it was only on 17 May 2006 that the DRDO leaders officially acknowledged the very fact of the existence of the intercontinental ballistic missile development programme: on that day the existence of the missile was revealed, and a short video footage about one of its tests was released for public.

The announcement of the new missile flight tests starting date was postponed at least three times on both political and technical reasons. Finally, on 9 July 2006 the first test launch of the Agni ICBM was made at the test range on Wheeler Island which turned out to be a failure. Since the first stage did not separate from the second one (there were also reports that the second stage separation had failed), the Agni III missile fell down on the ground short of the target area.

It is noteworthy that initially the developers planned to conduct only three flight tests of the new missile, considering the majority of its components already certified on other Agni family missiles and having no need for re-certification. It could have allowed induction of this strategic missile system into operational service even in 2008. Since the abortive flight test has compromised prospects for successful implementation of the charted plans, neither military-political leaders nor the developing company hasten to fix the date of the missile induction into service. At the same time Indian experts have already expressed their opinions about the possibility to derive several new modifications from the Agni III ICBM, including: - Agni IIISL shortened submarine-launched version (approximately 12 m long, equipped with three independently targeted reentry vehicles); - a missile equipped with multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles (MIRV); - as well as a three-stage version with substantially longer flight range.

The Agni III missile has sufficient power capacity to reach and engage any vital installations on the territory of Pakistan as well as important targets on the territory of China, including Shanghai and Beijing.

Agni IIAT medium-range ballistic missile

The Agni IIAT medium-range ballistic missile is a further development of the Agni II missile conducted under the Continuous Improvement Program for this missile family ("AT" stands for Advanced Technology).

The new medium-range ballistic missile modification features:

- warhead with lower-weight nuclear charge (but with greater yield);

- upgraded engine promising to provide increased launch range of up to 4,000 km;

- first stage greater diameter booster made of higher-strength steel (250-M) enabling the fuel-to-booster mass ratio to be raised to 0.88;

- substitution of steel in the second stage body structure with new composite materials enabling the fuel-to-second-stage mass ratio to be raised to 0.92;

- lower-mass reentry vehicle body fully made of composite materials (an option to mount the Mk4 type reentry vehicle, developed for the Agni III ICBM, is also considered).

Agni IV intercontinental ballistic missile

The Agni IV intercontinental ballistic missile is a follow-on development of the Agni III ICBM, featuring an additional third stage powered by a solid-propellant engine weighing about 2.3 tonnes. Its estimated launch range is supposed to extend to 10,000 km. The missile will also be fitted with a new independently targeted reentry vehicle 2.0 m long (instead of 3.3 m) comprising three independently targeted warheads and a set of antiballistic missile defence penetration means. There are plans to load the reentry vehicle with a lower-mass nuclear charge (retaining the same yield) developed during nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 (under Projects Shakti-I and Pokhyran-II)

The Agni IV ICBM specifications are as follows: missile length - 14.0 m, launch weight - up to 50 tonnes, reentry vehicle weight with the charge and antiballistic missile defence penetration means - up to 1,000 kg, reentry vehicle type - multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles; maximum flight range with full (1000 kg) combat payload - about 10,000 km.

Surya-I/Surya-II intercontinental ballistic missiles

The Surya (Sanskrit for "Sun") family intercontinental missiles are seen as advanced ballistic missile technology items. Data on these missiles are rather contradictory. Some sources intimate that the Surya II is another designation for the Agni IV ICBM. Other sources publish data according to which the new ICBM is derived from the Indian Polar Space Launch Vehicle (PSLV).

The Surya missile is supposed to comprise three stages: first and second stages powered by solid-propellant engines (modified versions of the corresponding PSLV engines), third stage with a liquid-propellant engine derived from the corresponding Vikas engine of the PSLV launch vehicle (French design) or a cryogenic engine of the GSLV launch vehicle (Russian design). The missile will be deployed at fixed launch positions.

Flight tests were planned to start in 2009, induction in service is expected in 2015. No reports have been published so far about the beginning of this missile flight tests.

Fig. PSLV C3 launch vehicle

Fig. GSLV Mk I launch vehicle

Fig. PSLV C3-1 launch vehicle

The Surya I/II ICBM specifications are as follows: missile length - 40.0 m, missile diameter - 2.8 m, launch weight - about 80 tonnes, multiple independently targeted reentry vehicles - two or three warheads of 15-20 kT yield each (or 200-300 kT each, according to other data sources). The Surya I missile has maximum launch range of 5,000 - 8,000 km, whereas the Surya II ICBM from 12,000 km to 20,000 km.

A special emphasis should be made on the fact that Indian military and political leaders always officially denied that the country conducted works on the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles. For example, India's Minister of Foreign Affairs Jaswant Singh said at the press-conference in January 2002: "ICBM is not our priority, nor our goal".

Development activities for the Agni and Surya ICBM families are implemented by the following parties:

1. Developer - Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India;

2. Ballistic missile manufacturer - Bharat Dynamics Limited, Hyderabad;

3. Developer of mobile launcher and transport-loader vehicle (excepting the Agni IV and Surya family missiles) - Research & Development Engineers (R&DE), Pune.

4. Manufacturer of mobile launcher and transport-loader vehicle (excepting the Agni IV and Surya family missiles) - Vehicle Research & Development Establishment (VRDE), DRDO division, Ahmednagar.

5. Manufacturer of the nuclear charge - Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).

Basic specifications of the Agni family ballistic missiles

Characteristics	Agni-TD/TTB	Agni I	Agni II	Agni IIAT	Agni III	Agni IV
First stage mass	10,800	10,800	10,800	20,000	30,500	more than 30,000
Second stage mass	7,000	-	4,200	6,000	12,000	more than 12,000
Third stage mass	-	-	-	-	-	2,300
Reentry vehicle mass with combat payload	up to 1,000	up to 1,000	up to 1,000	up to 1,500	1,500 or 500	up to 1,000
Missile launch mass, kg:	around 19,000	around 12,000	around 16,000	more than 27,000	more than 43,000	up to 50,000
First stage length, m	10.3	10.3	10.3	12.0	6.6	6.8
Second stage length, m	6.0	-	4.8	4.8	4.2	4.2
Third stage length	-	-	-	-	-	1,0
Reentry vehicle length, m	4.0	4.5	4.5	2.6	3.3	2.0
Missile length, m	20.3	14.8	19.6	19.4	14.1	14.0
First stage diameter, m	1.3	1.0	1.0	1.2	2.0	2.0
Second stage diameter, m	0.8	-	1.0	1.2	1.8	1.8
Third stage diameter, m	-	-	-	-	-	n/a
Maximum reentry vehicle diameter, m	0.8	0.81	0.8	1.0	1.8	1.8
Launch range, km	1,500	850	2,800-3,000	4,000	5,500 (1,500 kg) or 12,000 (500 kg)	10,000
Nuclear warhead yield, kT	n/a	1x200	1x200	1x200 or 1x300	1x200 or 1x300	3x200 or 3x300

Vladimir SHCHERAKOV

Inset No.1

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

Bhabha Atomic Research Center is situated in the city of Trombay, major center of atomic, oil-refining, petrochemical and chemical industries, 50 km to the south-east from Mumbai (former Bombay). It is India's principal research centre in the nuclear power engineering field, engaged both in fundamental and applied studies.

Indian atomic industry's history dates back to 1945 when the Institute of Fundamental Research was established. Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha, first director of the Institute, was the initiator and developer of the Indian Nuclear Programme officially announced in March 1944. He considered formation of national specialists in the field of nuclear power generation as one of the major goals of the Institute. "When nuclear energy is successfully applied to human activities, and this may happen in a couple of decades from now, India will not have to look abroad for nuclear experts for they will be formed in this country".

In April 1948 Atomic Energy Act was adopted, and in August 1948 Atomic Energy Commission was set up. On 3 January 1954 the Commission endorsed setting up of the Atomic Energy Establishment in Trombay under its supervision. Since that time all projects related to nuclear energy (construction of nuclear reactors, design and development of nuclear weapons, processing of radioactive materials, development of relevant electronic, machine-building and other technologies and equipment) were transferred from the Institute of Fundamental Research to the Atomic Energy Establishment in Trombay (even though it was officially opened by Jawaharlal Nehru only on 20 January 1957).

Another important milestone in the history of the Indian atomic industry was laid on 3 April 1954 when the Department of Atomic Energy was created within the Indian Government, and Dr. H. Bhabha was appointed its Secretary. The Atomic Energy Establishment was brought under the control of the new Department. Organisationally, the Atomic Energy Commission used to be a part of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research. Since then, however, the new Department came under direct control of India's Prime Minister (at that time - Jawaharlal Nehru).

On 22 January 1967 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi renamed the Atomic Energy Establishment as Bhabha Atomic Research Center to commemorate its founder Dr. Homi Bhabha who died in an air crash on 24 January 1966.

At present BARC researchers conduct works in the following directions:

- elementary particles physics;

- atomic energy engineering support;

- isotopes analyses;

- radiation medicine;

- nuclear energy applications to agriculture,

- computers;

- robotics;

- information technologies.

Cooperation / N1 2010